If you're looking to create that stunning green carpet effect in your aquarium, dwarf hairgrass might be exactly what you need. I've been growing this beautiful aquatic plant for years, and while it has a reputation for being somewhat demanding, with the right knowledge and approach, you can absolutely succeed with it.
Dwarf hairgrass, scientifically known as Eleocharis parvula, belongs to the sedge family Cyperaceae. This grass-like plant creates one of the most natural-looking carpets you can achieve in an aquarium, mimicking the appearance of a well-manicured lawn underwater. Native to brackish waters, salt marshes, and mudflats across the globe, this versatile plant has adapted remarkably well to freshwater aquarium life.
What makes dwarf hairgrass particularly appealing is its fine, bright green blades that sway gently with water movement, creating a mesmerizing underwater landscape. Growing to heights of 2-6 inches (5-15 cm), it's perfect for foreground placement in tanks of all sizes. The plant spreads through runners, gradually forming a dense carpet that can transform the entire aesthetic of your aquarium.
Species Overview and Natural Habitat
Understanding where dwarf hairgrass comes from helps us recreate ideal conditions in our tanks. Eleocharis parvula is found naturally in North America, Central America, South America, Europe, North Africa, and Asia. This widespread distribution tells us something important - this plant is incredibly adaptable.
In nature, you'll find dwarf hairgrass in shallow waters along coastlines, in marshes, and even in rice paddies. It typically grows in areas with soft, nutrient-rich substrates and receives plenty of sunlight. The plant experiences seasonal variations in water levels, sometimes even growing emersed (above water) during dry periods. This natural resilience translates well to aquarium conditions, though we need to provide specific parameters for optimal growth.
It's worth noting that there's often confusion between different Eleocharis species in the aquarium trade. While E. parvula is the true dwarf hairgrass, you might also encounter E. acicularis (often called mini dwarf hairgrass) and E. vivipara (tall hairgrass). Each has slightly different growth characteristics and requirements. True E. parvula has the finest leaves and creates the most lawn-like appearance, making it the preferred choice for most aquascapers.
The plant's natural growth pattern involves sending out runners horizontally through the substrate. These runners develop new shoots every few centimeters, gradually filling in gaps to create a continuous carpet. In optimal conditions, this process happens relatively quickly, though patience is definitely required during the establishment phase.
Tank Requirements and Initial Setup
Setting up your tank properly from the start makes all the difference with dwarf hairgrass. I recommend a minimum tank size of 10 gallons, though the plant will thrive in larger setups. The key is providing adequate lighting coverage across the entire substrate area where you want the carpet to develop.
Substrate choice is absolutely critical for dwarf hairgrass success. Fine-grained substrates work best because they allow the delicate roots to penetrate easily and the runners to spread without obstruction. I've had excellent results with aquarium soil substrates like ADA Aqua Soil or Fluval Stratum. These nutrient-rich substrates provide essential nutrients directly to the root zone, where dwarf hairgrass primarily feeds.
If you're using inert substrates like sand or fine gravel, you'll need to supplement with root tabs regularly. Place them every 4-6 inches throughout the carpeted area, refreshing them every 2-3 months. The substrate depth should be at least 2-3 inches (5-7.5 cm) to accommodate the root system and allow proper anchoring.
Water parameters for dwarf hairgrass are relatively flexible, but certain ranges promote better growth:
- Temperature: 68-82°F (20-28°C), with 72-78°F (22-25°C) being ideal
- pH: 6.0-7.5, slightly acidic to neutral preferred
- General Hardness (GH): 2-12 dGH
- Carbonate Hardness (KH): 1-8 dKH
- Nitrates: 10-25 ppm
- Phosphates: 0.5-2 ppm
Water flow is another important consideration. Moderate circulation helps deliver nutrients and CO2 to the plant while preventing debris accumulation on the carpet. However, excessive flow can uproot newly planted sections or cause the grass to lay flat constantly, which isn't ideal for aesthetic or health reasons.
Planting Techniques for Optimal Growth
The planting technique you use significantly impacts how quickly your dwarf hairgrass establishes and spreads. When you receive your dwarf hairgrass, it usually comes in small pots or portions with the roots wrapped in rock wool. The first step is removing all the rock wool carefully - I use tweezers and rinse the roots gently under running water to remove every bit.
Once cleaned, divide the hairgrass into small portions, each containing about 5-10 blades. This might seem tedious, but smaller portions establish faster and create a more even carpet. Using aquascaping tweezers, plant each portion about 1-2 inches apart in a grid pattern across your desired carpet area. Insert the portions at a slight angle, pushing them deep enough that only about half the blade length remains above the substrate.
A technique I've found particularly effective is the "dry start method" (DSM). This involves planting the hairgrass in moist substrate without filling the tank with water initially. Cover the tank with plastic wrap to maintain humidity and provide good lighting for 6-8 hours daily. Mist the plants every day or two to keep them moist. After 4-6 weeks, you'll see significant runner development and new growth. Then flood the tank gradually over several days. This method gives the roots time to establish without the risk of floating away.
For those planting in an established tank, consider using plant weights or small rocks temporarily to keep portions in place until roots develop. Remove these anchors after 2-3 weeks once the plants are established. During this initial period, you might notice some yellowing or die-back of the original blades - this is normal as the plant adjusts to your tank conditions and redirects energy to root development.
Lighting Requirements: The Key to Dense Carpeting
Lighting is perhaps the single most important factor for dwarf hairgrass success. This plant requires medium to high lighting to maintain compact growth and spread effectively. In my experience, you need at least 2 watts per gallon of full-spectrum LED lighting, or 35-50 PAR at the substrate level.
I run my lights for 8-10 hours daily on a timer to maintain consistency. Starting with 6 hours and gradually increasing to your target photoperiod helps prevent algae issues during the establishment phase. The spectrum should include strong peaks in the red (660nm) and blue (450nm) ranges, which promote photosynthesis and healthy growth.
Without adequate lighting, dwarf hairgrass grows tall and spindly, reaching for light rather than spreading horizontally. The blades become thin and pale green or yellow. If you notice these symptoms, it's a clear sign you need to increase your lighting intensity or duration. However, be cautious about suddenly increasing light levels, as this can trigger algae blooms.
For deeper tanks (over 12 inches), you might need even stronger lighting to reach the substrate effectively. Consider using focused LED spotlights or additional light fixtures to ensure even coverage. Remember that taller plants or hardscape can create shadows that inhibit carpet growth in those areas.
CO2 Injection: Is It Really Necessary?
While dwarf hairgrass can survive without CO2 injection, I'll be honest - it thrives with it. CO2 supplementation accelerates growth rate by 3-4 times and produces a much denser, healthier carpet. Without CO2, expect slower growth and potentially less vibrant coloration.
If you're using CO2, aim for levels between 20-30 ppm. You can monitor this using a drop checker with pH/KH reference solution. Start CO2 injection 1-2 hours before lights come on and stop it 1 hour before lights off. This schedule ensures maximum availability during the photosynthesis period.
For those who can't or don't want to use pressurized CO2, liquid carbon supplements like Seachem Excel can help, though results won't be as dramatic. Dose according to package instructions, typically daily after water changes. Some aquarists report success with DIY CO2 systems using yeast and sugar, though these require more maintenance and provide less consistent CO2 levels.
Without any CO2 supplementation, focus on maintaining excellent water quality, appropriate lighting, and rich substrate nutrition. While growth will be slower, you can still achieve a decent carpet over time. Consider choosing low light aquarium plants for other areas of your tank to reduce overall CO2 demand.
Nutrient Requirements and Fertilization
Dwarf hairgrass is a heavy root feeder, meaning it primarily absorbs nutrients through its root system rather than its leaves. This characteristic makes substrate nutrition particularly important. Even with nutrient-rich aquarium soil, you'll eventually need to supplement as nutrients deplete over time.
For root feeding, I use root tabs placed every 4-6 inches throughout the carpeted area. Replace these every 2-3 months or when you notice growth slowing. Quality root tabs contain iron, potassium, and trace elements essential for healthy growth. You can make your own using Osmocote Plus and gel capsules, though commercial aquarium-specific products are often more complete.
Liquid fertilizers still play a role, particularly for providing readily available iron and micronutrients. I dose liquid fertilizer 2-3 times per week, focusing on iron-rich formulations. Iron deficiency shows as yellowing of new growth while older leaves remain green. If you notice this, increase your iron supplementation.
A balanced NPK (Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium) ratio is important. Aim for:
- Nitrates: 10-25 ppm
- Phosphates: 1-2 ppm
- Potassium: 15-30 ppm
Test your water weekly initially to understand your tank's nutrient consumption rate. Once established, you can reduce testing frequency to bi-weekly or monthly. Remember that other plants in your tank compete for nutrients, so you might need to increase dosing in heavily planted tanks.
Maintenance and Trimming Techniques
Regular maintenance keeps your dwarf hairgrass carpet looking pristine and promotes healthy growth. Trimming is the most important maintenance task, and I recommend doing it every 2-3 weeks once the carpet is established.
For trimming, use sharp aquascaping scissors held parallel to the substrate. Cut the grass to about 1-2 inches (2.5-5 cm) in height. Don't worry about cutting too much - dwarf hairgrass responds well to aggressive trimming by producing denser growth. After trimming, you'll notice lots of clippings floating around. Use a fine net or turn up your filter flow temporarily to collect these.
Some aquarists prefer using wave-style scissors designed specifically for carpet trimming. These curved scissors allow you to trim larger areas more quickly and maintain an even height across the entire carpet. Whatever tool you use, ensure it's sharp to create clean cuts that heal quickly.
Debris tends to accumulate on dwarf hairgrass carpets, which can block light and promote algae growth. During weekly water changes, gently wave your hand above the carpet to stir up debris, then vacuum it out with a gravel vacuum held slightly above the grass. Be careful not to suck up the plants themselves.
Every few months, consider "rejuvenating" sections of your carpet that look thin or unhealthy. Remove these sections entirely, replant with fresh portions, and they'll quickly fill back in. This technique is particularly useful for managing areas affected by algae or where fish have created bare spots from digging.
Propagation Methods and Spreading Patterns
Dwarf hairgrass propagates naturally through runners (stolons) that spread horizontally through the substrate. Each runner produces new plantlets every few centimeters, gradually filling in the carpet. Understanding this growth pattern helps you plan your initial planting density and predict filling time.
In optimal conditions with CO2 and high light, runners can extend 2-3 inches per month, with new shoots appearing every 0.5-1 inch along the runner. Without CO2, expect about half this growth rate. Temperature also affects propagation speed - warmer temperatures (76-80°F) promote faster spreading.
To propagate manually, you can divide established clumps during maintenance. Carefully uproot a dense section and split it into smaller portions using your fingers or scissors to cut through the root mass. Replant these portions in new areas or use them to fill sparse sections of your existing carpet. This method is particularly useful when you want to expand your carpet to new areas of the tank.
Some aquarists accelerate spreading by temporarily increasing lighting and CO2 levels during the establishment phase. While effective, monitor carefully for algae growth and be prepared to reduce levels if problems arise. Regular trimming also encourages lateral growth rather than vertical growth, helping the carpet fill in more quickly.
Common Problems and Troubleshooting Solutions
Even experienced aquarists encounter challenges with dwarf hairgrass. The most common issue I see is slow or no spreading. This usually stems from insufficient lighting or lack of CO2. Check your PAR levels at substrate level - you need at least 35 PAR for decent growth. If lighting is adequate, consider adding CO2 or increasing nutrient supplementation.
Yellowing leaves indicate several possible issues. Iron deficiency causes new growth to yellow while old growth stays green. Nitrogen deficiency causes overall yellowing starting with older leaves. Test your water parameters and adjust fertilization accordingly. Sometimes, yellowing occurs during the adjustment period after planting - give it 2-3 weeks before taking action.
Algae growth on dwarf hairgrass is frustrating but manageable. Hair algae particularly likes to attach to the grass blades. Reduce lighting duration to 6-7 hours temporarily, increase CO2 if possible, and ensure good water flow. Amano shrimp and otocinclus catfish are excellent algae eaters that won't damage the grass. For severe cases, spot-treat with hydrogen peroxide or Excel using a syringe.
If your hairgrass grows tall and stringy instead of staying compact, insufficient light is the culprit. The plant is literally reaching for light. Increase lighting intensity or reduce the distance between light and substrate. Also check for shadowing from decorations or other plants that might block light.
Brown or black patches in your carpet often indicate dead zones with poor water circulation or debris accumulation. Increase flow to these areas using a powerhead or lily pipe. During water changes, pay special attention to cleaning these sections. In severe cases, remove affected portions entirely and replant.
Sometimes dwarf hairgrass simply won't establish despite perfect conditions. This might be due to the wrong species being sold (E. vivipara instead of E. parvula), poor quality plants, or incompatible tank inhabitants. Fish like goldfish or large cichlids will constantly uproot the grass. Choose appropriate tank mates that won't disturb the substrate.
Compatibility with Fish and Invertebrates
Choosing the right tank inhabitants makes a huge difference in dwarf hairgrass success. Small, peaceful fish that stay in the middle and upper water columns work best. I've had great success with tetras, rasboras, guppies, and small rainbowfish. These fish don't disturb the substrate and their waste provides additional nutrients.
Bottom-dwelling fish require more consideration. Corydoras catfish are generally safe, though they might uproot newly planted sections while foraging. Once established, the carpet can withstand their activity. Avoid large plecos or other fish that actively dig or burrow. Kuhli loaches can work but might create bare patches where they burrow.
Invertebrates are generally excellent companions for dwarf hairgrass. Cherry shrimp, crystal shrimp, and Amano shrimp help keep the carpet clean by eating algae and debris. They're light enough not to damage the grass and their bioload is minimal. Nerite snails are also beneficial, though Malaysian trumpet snails might disturb roots with their burrowing.
Interestingly, dwarf hairgrass provides excellent hiding spots for fry and shrimplets. The dense carpet offers protection from larger fish, making it ideal for breeding tanks. Many aquarists specifically grow hairgrass carpets in shrimp breeding setups for this reason.
Creating Aquascaping Designs with Dwarf Hairgrass
Dwarf hairgrass opens up numerous aquascaping possibilities. The classic approach creates a full carpet across the entire foreground, mimicking a natural meadow. This works particularly well in nature-style aquariums where you want to create depth and scale. The uniform green carpet makes rocks and driftwood stand out dramatically.
For more creative layouts, consider creating pathways through the carpet using sand or fine gravel. Plant the hairgrass in distinct sections, leaving negative space that draws the eye through the aquascape. This technique works beautifully in larger tanks where a full carpet might look monotonous.
Sloped carpets add tremendous depth to your aquascape. Build up substrate higher in the back corners and plant densely. As the carpet fills in, it creates the illusion of rolling hills. Combine this with strategic rock placement to create a mountainous landscape effect.
Dwarf hairgrass also works well as an accent plant rather than a full carpet. Plant small patches around the base of rocks or driftwood to soften hardscape edges. These isolated tufts create a natural transition between different substrate areas or plant zones. You might combine it with other carpeting plants like Monte Carlo plant or Marsilea Hirsuta for textural variety.
Alternative Carpeting Plants to Consider
While dwarf hairgrass creates stunning carpets, it's worth knowing about alternatives that might better suit your setup. If you're running a low-tech tank without CO2, consider easier options like Sagittaria subulata (dwarf sagittaria) or Marsilea species. These plants tolerate lower light and grow without CO2, though they create a different aesthetic.
For those wanting a similar grass-like appearance with less demanding requirements, Lilaeopsis brasiliensis (micro sword) is an excellent choice. It grows slightly larger than dwarf hairgrass but requires less light and spreads reliably without CO2. The trade-off is slower growth and less dense carpeting.
Monte Carlo (Micranthemum 'Monte Carlo') has become increasingly popular as a carpeting plant. It's easier to grow than dwarf hairgrass in many respects, tolerating lower light and spreading quickly. The round leaves create a different texture that some aquarists prefer. It's particularly good for beginners wanting a carpet effect without the challenges of hairgrass.
For the ultimate challenge, consider Hemianthus callitrichoides (HC or dwarf baby tears). This creates the finest, most delicate carpet possible but requires even more light and CO2 than dwarf hairgrass. It's stunning when successful but definitely not for beginners.
Seasonal Care Adjustments
While our aquariums maintain stable conditions year-round, seasonal changes in your home can affect dwarf hairgrass growth. During winter, room temperatures might drop, slowing growth even if your heater maintains water temperature. The plant's metabolism slows slightly in cooler conditions, requiring less frequent trimming and fertilization.
Summer brings different challenges. Higher ambient temperatures can increase water temperature beyond ideal ranges. Monitor closely and adjust heater settings or add cooling fans if needed. Increased temperatures accelerate metabolism, potentially requiring more frequent fertilization and trimming.
Seasonal changes in tap water parameters also affect your tank. Many municipalities adjust water treatment seasonally, affecting pH, hardness, and chloramine levels. Test your tap water periodically and adjust your water change routine accordingly. You might need to age water longer or adjust remineralization during certain times of year.
Natural daylight entering the room changes seasonally too. Even with artificial lighting, ambient light affects overall tank brightness and can influence algae growth. In summer, consider using curtains or blinds to reduce direct sunlight on the tank. Winter's shorter days might allow you to extend photoperiods slightly without algae issues.
Long-term Success Strategies
Maintaining a healthy dwarf hairgrass carpet long-term requires consistency and attention to gradual changes. After the initial establishment period (2-3 months), the carpet becomes largely self-sustaining with proper maintenance. However, certain practices ensure continued success over years rather than months.
Substrate nutrition gradually depletes even with regular root tab supplementation. After 18-24 months, consider substrate rejuvenation. This involves carefully removing sections of carpet, adding fresh aquarium soil underneath, and replanting. Do this gradually over several weeks to avoid disrupting the entire tank.
Regular carpet renovation prevents decline. Every 6-12 months, aggressively trim sections back to substrate level. This forces fresh growth and prevents the carpet from becoming too dense and trapping debris. Rotate which sections you renovate to maintain overall appearance while promoting health.
Monitor for gradual changes that indicate problems. Slowly declining growth rates, gradually changing color, or increasing patchiness often indicate developing issues. Address these early rather than waiting for obvious problems. Prevention is always easier than correction with planted tanks.
Keep detailed records of your maintenance routine, parameter measurements, and any changes you make. This documentation helps identify patterns and optimize your approach over time. Note when you trim, fertilize, change bulbs, or make any adjustments. This information becomes invaluable for troubleshooting issues or replicating success.
Equipment Recommendations by Tank Size
For nano tanks (5-10 gallons), dwarf hairgrass can work but requires careful equipment selection. A small but powerful LED like the Fluval Plant Nano or Chihiros A Series provides adequate lighting. These tanks benefit from liquid CO2 supplements rather than pressurized systems due to space constraints. Use fine aquarium soil at least 2 inches deep.
Medium tanks (20-40 gallons) offer ideal conditions for dwarf hairgrass carpets. LED fixtures like the Fluval Plant 3.0 or Finnex Planted+ 24/7 provide excellent coverage. A pressurized CO2 system with a ceramic diffuser works well at this scale. Consider an inline diffuser for better CO2 dissolution if using a canister filter.
Large tanks (55+ gallons) require multiple light fixtures or high-output LEDs to reach the substrate effectively. The Twinstar S Series or multiple Fluval 3.0s work well. Pressurized CO2 is almost mandatory at this scale - consider a larger CO2 cylinder (5-10 lbs) to reduce refill frequency. You might need multiple diffusers or a reactor for even CO2 distribution.
For all tank sizes, invest in quality aquascaping tools. Fine-tipped tweezers for planting, curved scissors for trimming, and a substrate leveling tool make maintenance much easier. A surface skimmer helps remove floating debris after trimming, keeping your display clean.
Cost Considerations and Budget Planning
Starting a dwarf hairgrass carpet requires initial investment, but understanding costs helps plan appropriately. The plants themselves typically cost $5-10 per pot, and you'll need 1 pot per 25-30 square inches of substrate area for good initial density. For a standard 20-gallon long tank, expect to spend $30-50 on plants.
Substrate represents a significant cost. Quality aquarium soil runs $30-50 for enough to properly cover a 20-gallon tank with 2-3 inches depth. While inert substrates are cheaper initially, the ongoing cost of root tabs makes aquarium soil more economical long-term.
Lighting is your biggest equipment expense. Adequate LED fixtures range from $50 for basic models to $200+ for programmable, high-output units. Don't skimp here - insufficient lighting guarantees failure with dwarf hairgrass. Consider it a long-term investment that benefits all your plants.
CO2 systems vary widely in price. DIY yeast systems cost under $20 but require constant maintenance. A basic pressurized system with regulator, cylinder, and diffuser starts around $150. Liquid carbon supplements cost $10-20 monthly if used as the sole CO2 source. Factor in cylinder refills at $15-25 every 2-6 months depending on tank size and injection rate.
Ongoing costs include fertilizers ($10-20 monthly), root tabs ($10 every 2-3 months), and potential equipment replacement. Budget for unexpected expenses like algae treatments or replacement plants if sections fail. Overall, expect $200-400 initial investment for a proper setup, with $20-30 monthly maintenance costs.
Frequently Asked Questions
How long does it take for dwarf hairgrass to form a complete carpet?
With CO2 and high light, expect 2-3 months for full coverage when planted properly. Without CO2, it can take 4-6 months or longer. Initial planting density significantly affects filling time - closer initial spacing means faster complete coverage.
Can dwarf hairgrass grow in sand?
Yes, but it requires heavy root tab supplementation since sand contains no nutrients. Use one root tab per 4 square inches and replace every 2 months. Fine sand works better than coarse sand as roots establish more easily.
Why is my dwarf hairgrass turning brown?
Brown coloration usually indicates insufficient light, nutrient deficiency (particularly iron), or adjustment period after planting. Check your lighting levels first, then test water parameters. New plants often brown initially before producing fresh green growth.
Do I need to vacuum my dwarf hairgrass carpet?
Yes, but carefully. Hold the vacuum slightly above the carpet during water changes to remove debris without uprooting plants. Gentle water movement with your hand helps dislodge trapped particles first.
Can dwarf hairgrass grow without substrate?
While it might survive attached to rocks or driftwood temporarily, dwarf hairgrass requires substrate for proper growth and spreading. The extensive root system needs substrate for anchorage and nutrient absorption.
How often should I trim my dwarf hairgrass?
Trim every 2-3 weeks once established, cutting to 1-2 inches height. More frequent trimming promotes denser growth. During initial establishment, wait until the grass reaches 3-4 inches before first trimming.
Is dwarf hairgrass suitable for goldfish tanks?
Generally no. Goldfish constantly forage and uproot plants, making carpet establishment nearly impossible. If you want plants with goldfish, consider hardy, well-anchored species instead.
What's the difference between Eleocharis parvula and Eleocharis acicularis?
E. parvula (dwarf hairgrass) has slightly thicker blades and grows 2-6 inches tall. E. acicularis (mini dwarf hairgrass) has finer blades and stays under 3 inches. Both create carpets, but E. acicularis spreads slower and creates a finer texture.
Can I grow dwarf hairgrass in a low-tech tank?
It's possible but challenging. Success requires patience, excellent substrate nutrition, and the maximum lighting your setup allows. Growth will be slow and sparse compared to high-tech setups. Consider easier alternatives if you're committed to low-tech.
How do I prevent algae on my dwarf hairgrass carpet?
Maintain stable CO2 levels, avoid excessive lighting duration (8-10 hours maximum), ensure good flow, and keep nutrients balanced. Regular trimming and debris removal prevent algae from establishing. Add algae-eating crew like Amano shrimp for prevention.
Conclusion
Creating a successful dwarf hairgrass carpet requires patience, proper equipment, and consistent maintenance, but the results justify the effort. This versatile plant transforms ordinary aquariums into stunning underwater landscapes that rival any terrestrial garden. While it has specific requirements for optimal growth, understanding and meeting these needs becomes second nature with experience.
Remember that every tank is unique, and what works perfectly in one setup might need adjustment in another. Start with the fundamentals - adequate lighting, nutrient-rich substrate, and stable water parameters - then fine-tune based on your observations. Don't get discouraged by initial setbacks; even experienced aquarists face challenges with new setups.
The key to long-term success lies in consistency and observation. Regular maintenance, timely interventions when problems arise, and patience during the establishment phase will reward you with a lush, vibrant carpet that becomes the foundation of your aquascape. Whether you're creating a simple nature aquarium or an elaborate aquascaping competition entry, dwarf hairgrass provides the perfect green canvas for your aquatic artistry.
As you gain experience with dwarf hairgrass, you'll develop your own techniques and preferences. The guidelines I've shared come from years of trial and error, but don't be afraid to experiment once you understand the basics. The aquarium hobby thrives on innovation and shared experiences, so document your successes and challenges to help others on their journey. Consider exploring other floating aquarium plants or combining different carpeting species to create unique aquascapes that reflect your personal style.
